Delight in Disorder ~ Text

Delight in Disorder

Robert Herrick

A sweet disorder in the dress

Kindles in clothes a wantonness;

A lawn about the shoulders thrown

Into a fine distraction;

An erring lace, which here and there

Enthrals the crimson stomacher;

A cuff neglectful, and thereby

Ribands to flow confusedly;

A winning wave, deserving note,

In the tempestuous petticoat;

A careless shoe-string, in whose tie

I see a wild civility:

Do more bewitch me, than when art

Is too precise in every part.

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Subordination

In linguistics, subordination (abbreviated variously subord, sbrd, subr or sr) is a principle of the hierarchical organization of linguistic units. While the principle is applicable in semantics, syntax, morphology, and phonology, most work in linguistics employs the term "subordination" in the context of syntax, and that is the context in which it is considered here. The syntactic units of sentences are often either subordinate or coordinate to each other. Hence an understanding of subordination is promoted by an understanding of coordination, and vice versa.


Subordinate clauses:
Subordination as a concept of syntactic organization is associated closely with the distinction between coordinate and subordinate clauses.[2] One clause is subordinate to another, if it depends on it. The dependent clause is called a subordinate clause and the independent clause is called the main clause (= matrix clause). Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by subordinators (= subordinate conjunctions) such as after, because, before, if, so that, that, when, while, etc. For example:

Before we play again, we should do our homework.

We are doing our homework now because we want to play again.

The strings in bold are subordinate clauses, and the strings in non-bold are the main clauses. Sentences must consist of at least one main clause, whereas the number of subordinate clauses is hypothetically without limitation. Long sentences that contain many subordinate clauses are characterized in terms of hypotaxis, the Greek term meaning the grammatical arrangement of "unequal" constructs (hypo="beneath", taxis="arrangement"). Sentences that contain few or no subordinate clauses but that may contain coordinated clauses are characterized in terms of parataxis.

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Linkers

In addition to the categories of vocabulary you have already learnt, there are other lexical (vocabulary) forms that support our expressions in composing a good paragraph. One such classification of lexis is linkers. Linkers are also called transitions or discourse markers. They help us establish our ideas explicitly. Linkers make it easy for us to compare, contrast, illustrate, define, and summarize our thoughts and develop coherent paragraphs. This unit introduces some linkers that help you to write a descriptive paragraph.
	What are linkers?
	Linkers are words that relate one idea or sentence of the text with another. They connect the ideas logically.
	Why are they used?
	They give direction to the writer. They are also used to guide the reader through his thoughts. They make the meaning specific.
	How to choose a linker?
	Meaning is the first and the most important criterion in choosing a linker. The second is the logical relation that needs to be made distinctly clear. For example, linkers like because, so and therefore express logical relations which are different from those expressed by although, but and nevertheless.
	What is their use in descriptive paragraphs?
	It is important to use linkers while describing a person, place or thing. They help us in listing facts chronologically, linking events across time, comparing and contrasting sketches, explaining graphic images and illustrating the main idea.
Listed below are some of the important linkers. Let us now learn them.
type of linker examples broad meaning example cause and effect because, so,  accordingly, thus, consequently, hence, therefore, as introduces a reason and shows result We had to wait because, it was raining. comparison similarly, likewise, whereas, but, on the other hand, except, by comparison, when compared to, equally, in the same way identifies similarities between two ideas Life is difficult in extreme polls;similarly, it is horrible near the Equatorial regions. contrast but, however, yet, still, even though, nevertheless, on the other hand, otherwise, after all, for all of that, on the contrary, notwithstanding, in contrast, unlike,  whereas, instead of, alternatively, although identifies differences between two ideas Raj did not perform well in the exam; nevertheless, he got a distinction in English. time at once, immediately, meanwhile, at length, in the meantime, at the same time, in the end, when, then, as, before that, after that indicates time and frequency of events The bell rang and the students left immediately. addition and, also, even, again, moreover, further, furthermore,  similarly, in addition, as well as adds ideas in support of the main idea It is very hot today; moreover, there is a power outage. example for example, such as, for instance,  in this case, in another case, on this occasion, in this situation,  in this manner, to illustrate introduces  illustrations in support of the main idea I think he is very rich; for example, he gave a hundred rupee note to a beggar.  sequence first, second, third, next, then, following, now, at this point, after, after this, subsequently, eventually, finally, previously shows the importance of the ideas by listing according to the priority There is a students’ procession today; therefore, they diverted the traffic. summary in brief, on the whole, in sum, to sum up, thus draws conclusion by summarizing the ideas It is a love story, the actors performed well, the direction is excellent, the settings are beautiful; in brief, it is a good film.
Let us look at the linkers used in our model paragraph:
The Human Body
The human body is a wonderful piece of work that nature has created. It is not beautiful like the body of a butterfly or a peacock but it is shaped practically. It can do many types of work which other animals cannot. It is not strong like the body of a tiger.But in place of physical strength it has a big and sharp brain. By using this brain the human physique has been able to overcome many of its limitations. By sitting in an aeroplane it flies faster than a kite, by riding a motorcycle it travels faster than a leopard, and by firing a machine gun it fights much better than a tiger.In spite of all this, the human body suffers from many diseases because it has a weakness for habitssuch as smoking, drinking and overeating.Whenit is healthy the body can give great pleasure but when it is sick it can cause great pain. The wise man would always keep his body fit because a healthy mind can work only in a healthy body.
Some of the linkers in the paragraph are but, in spite of, such as, when, because.
But is a linker that speaks of the contrast of beauty and strength between animals and the human body.
In spite of is also a linker that contrasts the strength of the human body with its weaknesses.
Such as is a linker that illustrates the weaknesses of human body by naming them.
When is a time linker that tells us what happens at the time the body is healthy or sick.
Because is a linker that states the reason for keeping the body fit and healthy.

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Parallelism

Parallelism Definition:

Parallelism is the use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same; or similar in their construction, sound, meaning or meter. Parallelism examples are found in literary works as well as in ordinary conversations.

This method adds balance and rhythm to sentences giving ideas a smoother flow and thus can be persuasive because of the repetition it employs. For example, “Alice ran into the room, into the garden, and into our hearts.” We see the repetition of a phrase that not only gives the sentence a balance but rhythm and flow as well. This repetition can also occur in similar structured clauses e.g. “Whenever you need me, wherever you need me, I will be there for you.”

Common Parallelism Examples

• Like father, like son.
• The escaped prisoner was wanted dead or alive.
• Easy come, easy go.
• Whether in class, at work or at home, Shasta was always busy.
• Flying is fast, comfortable, and safe.

Examples of Parallelism in Literature

In literature, parallelism is used in different ways to impress upon the readers in order to convey messages or moral lessons. Let us analyze a few examples of parallelism in literature:

Example #1

Antithesis is a kind of parallelism in which two opposite ideas are put together in parallel structures. Alexander Pope in his “An Essay on Criticism” uses antithetic parallel structure:

“To err is human; to forgive divine.”

Imperfection is a human trait and God is most forgiving. Through these antithetical but parallel structures, the poet wants to say that God is forgiving because his creation is erring.

Example #2

We find parallelism in John Donne’s poem “Community”,

“Good we must love, and must hate ill,
For ill is ill, and good good still;
But there are things indifferent,
Which we may neither hate, nor love,
But one, and then another prove,
As we shall find our fancy bent.”

Contrasting ideas of “good” and “ill”, “love” and “hate” are placed together in parallel structures to emphasize the fact that we love good because it is always good and we hate bad because it is always bad.

Example #3

We see the repetition of parallel structures in the following lines from “A Tale of Two Cities” by Charles Dickens:

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair.

By repeating “It was…” in the passage, the readers are prompted to focus on the traits of the “age” they will read about in the succeeding passages.

Example #4

We see William Blake employ Parallelism in his poem “The Tyger”:

“What the hammer? what the chain?
In what furnace was thy brain?
What the anvil? what dread grasp
Dare its deadly terrors clasp?”

The use of parallel structures, starting with “what”, creates a beautiful rhythm in the above lines.

Example #5

Parallelism takes form of “Diazeugma” in which a single subject is connected with multiple verbs. Read the following lines from the speech of Norfolk in William Shakespeare Henry VIII, Act 3, Scene 2:

“My lord, we have
Stood here observing him: Some strange commotion
Is in his brain: he bites his lip, and starts;
Stops on a sudden, looks upon the ground,
Then, lays his finger on his temple; straight,
Springs out into fast gait; then, stops again,
Strikes his breast hard; and anon, he casts
His eye against the moon: in most strange postures
We have seen him set himself.”

The use of multiple verbs in the above lines creates a dramatic effect in the speech of Norfolk that makes his description vivid.

Function of Parallelism

The use of parallel structures in speech or writing allows speakers and writers to maintain a consistency within their work and create a balanced flow of ideas. Moreover, it can be employed as a tool for persuasion as well because of the repetition it uses.

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Inversion

In linguistics, inversion is any of several grammatical constructions where two expressions switch their canonical order of appearance, that is, they invert. The most frequent type of inversion in English is subject–auxiliary inversion, where an auxiliary verb changes places with its subject; this often occurs in questions, such as Are you coming?, where the subject you is switched with the auxiliary are. In many other languages – especially those with freer word order than English – inversion can take place with a variety of verbs (not just auxiliaries) and with other syntactic categories as well.

When a layered constituency-based analysis of sentence structure is used, inversion often results in the discontinuity of a constituent, although this would not be the case with a flatter dependency-based analysis. In this regard inversion has consequences similar to those of shifting.

Inversion in English

In broad terms, one can distinguish between two major types of inversion in English that involve verbs: subject–auxiliary inversion and subject–verb inversion.^[1] The difference between these two types resides with the nature of the verb involved, i.e. whether it is an auxiliary verb or a full verb.

Subject–auxiliary inversion

The most frequently occurring type of inversion in English is subject–auxiliary inversion. The subject and auxiliary verb invert, i.e. they switch positions, e.g.

a. Fred will stay.

b. Will Fred stay? - Subject–auxiliary inversion with yes/no question

a. Larry has done it.

b. What has Larry done? - Subject–auxiliary inversion with constituent question

a. Fred has helped at no point.

b. At no point has Fred helped. - Subject–auxiliary inversion with fronted expression containing negation (negative inversion)

a. If we were to surrender, ...

b. Were we to surrender, ... - Subject–auxiliary inversion in condition clause – see English subjunctive: Inversion in condition clauses

The default order in English is subject–verb (SV), but a number of meaning-related differences (such as those illustrated above) motivate the subject and auxiliary verb to invert so that the finite verb precedes the subject; one ends up with auxiliary–subject (Aux-S) order. This type of inversion fails if the finite verb is not an auxiliary:

a. Fred stayed.

b. *Stayed Fred? - Inversion impossible here because the verb is NOT an auxiliary verb

(The star * is the symbol used in linguistics to indicate that the example is grammatically unacceptable.)

Subject–verb inversion

The verb in cases of subject–verb inversion in English is not required to be an auxiliary verb; it is, rather, a full verb or a form of the copula be. If the sentence has an auxiliary verb, the subject is placed after the auxiliary and the main verb. For example:

a. A unicorn will come into the room.

b. Into the room will come a unicorn.

Since this type of inversion generally places the focus on the subject, the subject is likely to be a full noun or noun phrase rather than a pronoun. Third-person personal pronounsare especially unlikely to be found as the subject in this construction. For example:

a. Down the stairs came the dog. - Noun subject

b. ? Down the stairs came it. - Third-person personal pronoun as subject; unlikely unless it has special significance and is stressed

c. Down the stairs came I. - First-person personal pronoun as subject; more likely, though still I would require stress

There are a number of types of subject-verb inversion in English: locative inversion, directive inversion, copular inversion, and quotative inversion. See the article on subject-verb inversion.

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Misplaced Modifiers

Misplaced Modifier

Modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses that add description to sentences. Typically, you will find a modifier snuggled right next to—either in front of or behind—the word it logically describes. Take the simple, one-word adjectiveblue. If we add it to the sentence that follows, where should it go?

At a downtown dealership, Kara bought a truck from a salesman with a comb over.

Should we locate blue next to dealership? A blue downtown dealership? Ablue Kara? A blue salesman? Of course not! Logic dictates that blue can describe only one word, truck, so we must place the modifier next to that word:

At a downtown dealership, Kara bought a blue truck from a salesman with a comb over.

In a similar manner, multi-word phrases and clauses often go right next to the word they describe. Here are some examples:

Gazing out the window, Paul missed the homework assignment that Prof. Zuromski wrote on the board.

Gazing out the window is a participle phrase describing Paul, thenoun that follows.

Sam gobbled the sandwich, which was soggy with tomato juice, as he rushed to class.

Which was soggy with tomato juice is an adjective clause describing sandwich, the noun before it.

As the hurricane approached, we watched the tree branches waving in the strong breeze.

Waving in the strong breeze is a participle phrase describing branches, the noun in front.

Sometimes a writer places the modifier too far away from the word it should describe. Born in the confusion is a misplaced modifier, an error. Read these examples:

Churning in the Atlantic Ocean, we anxiously watched the weather report for information about the hurricane.

Churning in the Atlantic Ocean is a participle phrase. In the current sentence, it is describing the pronoun we. How illogical! We cannot churn in an ocean!

Raymond wore his one collared shirt to the job interview, which was unfortunately stained with yellow mustard.

Which was unfortunately stained with yellow mustard is an adjective clause. In the sentence above, it is describing interview, the noun in front. But an interview can't get stained with mustard!

Professor Jones, who was late with another essay, waited for the slacker student.

Who was late with another essay is an adjective clause. In this sentence, it is describing Professor Jones, the noun before it. But he's not the identified slacker! The student is!

To fix the error, locate the modifier next to the appropriate word:

We anxiously watched the weather report for information about the hurricane churning in the Atlantic Ocean.

Raymond wore his one collared shirt, which was unfortunately stained with yellow mustard, to the job interview.

Professor Jones waited for the slacker student who was late with another essay.

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Principal and Sub-ordinate Clauses

Principal Clause :

A Clause is a the group of words but it is only a part of a sentence. It has a subject and a predicate, but still it does not make complete sense without the principal part of the sentence, called principal clause. 

Examples :

I don’t know where he lives.

We should remember God wherever we go.

He told me that he had finished his work.

Will you please tell me where you found this book?


In the above sentences, the group of words given in bold and underlined are Clauses. 

Types of Clauses :


Strictly speaking, there are three kinds of Clauses.

1. Principal Clause (or) Main Clause (or) Independent Clause
   
2. Coordinate Clause
   
3. Subordinate Clause (or) Dependent Clause 
   
   

Principal Clause :


This Clause is the main part of sentence. As it contains the subject as well as the finite verb and the object, it can make complete sense itself. It does not have to depend upon any other Clause. 

Examples :

She wrote a letter.

She is the best girl in the class. 


Coordinate Clause : 


This Clause forms part of a sentence, but in rank, it is equal to the Principal Clause. However, alone it cannot form a sentence. It is connected to a principal clause by a Coordinating conjunction, through like the Principal Clause, in itself it forms a complete sense. 


Examples : 

He gets up early in the morning and goes out for a walk.

He is poor but he is honest.

You must work hard or you can’t succeed. 


In the above sentences, the group of words given in bold are Coordinate clauses. 


Here the conjunction AND, BUT, OR are called Coordinating conjunctions. 


Subordinate Clause : 


A Subordinate Clause depends on a Main Clause for its complete meaning. 


Examples : 

Though I am poor, I am happy.

As she was ill, she could not go to school.

Unless you work hard, you will fail. 


In the above sentences, the group of words given in bold are Subordinate clauses. 

                                         Subordinate Clause

The Subordinate Clause will not give a complete meaning. 


This will only support the meaning of the main clause. 


Or some times, this will depend upon the main clause for getting a meaning. 


The subordinate clause will be a part of the main clause. 


Though Subordinate Clause had finite verb, we can not get complete meaning from it. It depends on the main clause for its complete meaning. 

Examples :

As he was ill, he did not come to college yesterday. 

Since she attends the function, she has to go fast. 

Why we did not come to the school is not a matter now. 

The dog that bites does not bark. 

He fled where his pursuers could not follow. 

I am the monarch of all I survey. 

He is the son of whom I met yesterday. 

He replied that we had to pay him by that day. 

We expected that he would abide by our words. 

It is true that he has scored centum in Math. 



(The boldened part of these sentences are Subordinate Clauses) 

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Complex Sentences

A complex sentence is a sentence that combines one independent clause with at least one dependent clause. A clause is a group of words that has both a subject and a verb. An independent clause forms a complete thought. A dependent clause, also called a subordinating clause, does not form a complete thought and is dependent upon an independent clause for meaning.

Examples of Complex Sentences

Here are some examples of complex sentences:

Although Denise had some doubts, she found the courses very useful.

The above example is a complex sentence: it has a dependent clause (a subject 'Denise' and a verb 'had') followed by an independent clause (subject 'she' and a verb 'found') and forms a complete thought.

Computers have come a long way since they first came on the market.

This example begins with an independent clause (subject 'computers' and verb 'have come') that forms a complete thought, followed by a dependent clause (subject 'they' and a verb 'came').

Subordinating Conjunctions

In these examples, the dependent clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions or subordinators. Subordinators are conjunctions that indicate the subordinate or dependent role of the clause in the sentence.

The following words are some examples of subordinating conjunctions:

• although
• because
• since
• unless
• when
• whereas
• which
• while
• who
• whoever
• whose

This is by no means a complete list.

Using Subordinate Clauses in Complex Sentences

In complex sentences, subordinate clauses function within the sentence as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.

An adjective clause is a dependent clause that functions like an adjective; an adjective modifies or describes a noun. In this sentence,

The President chose people who would help him make good decisions.

the dependent clause 'who would help him make good decisions' functions as an adjective to modify 'people.'

An adverb clause is a dependent clause that functions like an adverb; an adverb modifies or describes a verb. In the example sentence,

When the food arrived, the children ate everything.

the subordinate clause 'when the food arrived' functions as an adverb to modify 'ate.'

A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions like a noun; a noun is a person, place, or thing. In the example sentence,

Whoever signs the lease is responsible for the rent.

the subordinate clause, 'whoever signs the lease,' serves as the subject of the sentence. This sentence is considered a complex sentence because it has both an independent clause (the entire sentence) and a dependent clause, 'whoever signs the lease.'

Using Complex Sentences With Other Sentence Types

Complex sentences help you combine ideas in an interesting way. When you use them with other sentence types in your writing, the variety helps you avoid choppiness and dull repetition. Each sentence type has a set number of clauses:

• Simple sentences have one independent clause
• Compound sentences have at least two independent clauses
• Complex sentences have one independent clause and at least one dependent clause
• Compound-complex sentences have at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause

Here's an example of a paragraph that uses all four sentence types:

Maria always leaves her keys on the kitchen counter, while David always keeps his keys in his room. I leave my keys in my purse. It's important to leave your keys in one place, because if you're always losing them, you end up wasting so much time. Put your keys in the same place every day, and you'll save yourself a lot of hassle.

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Compound Sentences

In this lesson, we'll cover compound sentences and how to create them by joining two or more independent clauses together. Compound sentences differ from other sentence types, and if you leave out their joining elements, you turn them into run-on sentences. After you review the lesson, you can test your knowledge of compound sentences with a quiz.

Definition

A compound sentence is a sentence that has at least two independent clauses joined by a comma, semicolon or conjunction. An independent clause is a clause that has a subject and verb and forms a complete thought.

An example of a compound sentence is, 'This house is too expensive, and that house is too small.' This sentence is a compound sentence because it has two independent clauses, 'This house is too expensive' and 'that house is too small' separated by a comma and the conjunction 'and.'

Compound Sentences and Meaning

When independent clauses are joined with coordinators (also called coordinating conjunctions) commas and semicolons, they do more than just join the clauses. They add meaning and flow to your writing. First let's look at the coordinators you can use to join independent clauses. They are:

• For
• And
• Nor
• But
• Or
• Yet
• So

Note that they form the handy mnemonic FANBOYS. The three you will use most often are 'and,' 'but' and 'or.'

Here's an example of how coordinating conjunctions add meaning:

'I think you'd enjoy the party, but I don't mind if you stay home.'

In this sentence, the coordinator 'but' shows a clear relationship between the two independent clauses, in this case, that the speaker is making a suggestion that the person being addressed isn't expected to follow it. Without the coordinator 'but,' the relationship isn't apparent, making the writing choppy and the meaning less clear:

'I think you'd enjoy the party. I don't mind if you stay home.'

You can also join independent clauses with a semicolon (;) , which looks something like a cross between a colon and a comma. If you join clauses with a semicolon, you add an abrupt pause, creating a different kind of effect, as shown in the sentence below:

'He said he didn't mind if I stayed home; it soon became clear he wasn't being honest.'

You should use a semicolon when the independent clauses are related, but contrast in a way that you want to stand out. In the sentence above, the contrast is that the person being talked about in the first clause sounded honest when he said he didn't mind if the speaker stayed home, but in the second clause, the speaker is telling you that the person being talked about was not honest. You could just as easily have written the sentence using a coordinating conjunction:

'He said he didn't mind if I stayed home, but it soon became clear he wasn't being honest.'

The sentence still means the same as before, but using the coordinator 'but' softens the impact of the second clause.

Comparing Sentence Types

Sentences give structure to language, and in English, they come in four types: simple, compound, complex and compound-complex. When you use several types together, your writing is more interesting. Combining sentences effectively takes practice, but you'll be happy with the result.

1. The simple sentence is an independent clause with one subject and one verb. For example: 'Katniss can survive in the forest.'
2. The compound sentence is, as noted previously, two or more independent clauses joined with a comma, semicolon or conjunction. For example: 'Katniss can survive in the forest, and she is a capable archer.'
3. The complex sentence combines independent clauses with dependent clauses. For example: 'When equipped with her bow and arrows, Katniss can survive in the forest.'

What Are Compound Sentences (with Examples)

A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses.

An independent clause (unlike a dependent clause) can stand alone as a sentence.

In a compound sentence, the two clauses are joined using:

• a conjunction with a comma (e.g., ", and")
(Read more about when to use commas before conjunctions.)
• a semicolon
(Read more about using semicolons.)
• a colon
(This is rare because the words after a colon are not often an independent clause.)
(Read more about using colons.)
• a dash
(Read more about using dashes instead of semicolons and colons.)
• a conjunction with a semicolon (e.g., "; and")
(This is rare because it's an outdated style.)
(Read more about when to use a comma before conjunctions.)

Examples of Compound Sentences

Below are examples of compound sentences. In each example, the independent clauses are shaded.

• Only two things are infinite, the universe and human stupidity, and I'm not sure about the former. (Albert Einstein, 1879-1955)
• There used to be a real me, but I had it surgically removed. (Peter Sellers, 1925-1980)
• Go, and never darken my towels again. (Groucho Marx, 1890-1977)
(Note: Go is the shortest sentence in English.)
• Any fool can criticize, condemn, and complain - and most fools do. (Dale Carnegie)

The Four Types of Sentence Structure

A compound sentence is one of four main sentence structures, all of which are shown below. In these examples, the independent clauses are shaded.

A Complex Sentence. A complex sentence has an independent clause and at least one dependent clause. For example:

• Diplomacy is the art of saying "nice doggie" until you can find a rock. (Will Rogers, 1879-1935)

A Compound Sentence. A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses. For example:

• Some men are born mediocre, some men achieve mediocrity, and some men have mediocrity thrust upon them. (Joseph Heller, 1923-1999) (Jane Wagner)
(This example has three independent clauses.)

A Simple Sentence. A simple sentence has just one independent clause. For example:

• A country can be judged by the quality of its proverbs. (German Proverb)

A Compound-Complex Sentence.  A compound-complex sentence has at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. For example:

• I stopped believing in Santa Claus when my mother took me to see him in a department store, and he asked for my autograph. (Shirley Temple)

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